Hussin Alameedi

Introduction

In April 2023, Sudan’s Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces (RSF) engaged in a war.[1] The war has devasted communities, displaced millions, and exacerbated an already dire humanitarian crisis.[2] Coupled with severe droughts and deadly floods, the effects of conflict and environmental instability are pushing communities to the brink.[3] In some parts of the country famine has already been declared, putting millions of lives at immediate risk.[4] This post explores the root of the armed conflict, the relationship between the ongoing armed conflict in Sudan and human rights violations, and the international community’s response.

The Root of the Armed Conflict

The RSF, which is an independent Sudanese military force, grew out of the Janjaweed militia, formerly active in the Darfur region of the country.[5] Tense negotiations between the SAF and RSF, around reforming the country’s security sector, included terms that would have seen the military rule, in place since 2021, hand over power to civilian leaders.[6] These terms created mounting tensions because hardline factions within the military are resistant to incorporating what they see as a less professional security service into their professional army.[7] In mid-April 2023, senior officials responded to an outbreak of armed clashes between the RSF and SAF in many parts of the capital Khartoum and nearby areas.[8] According to media reports, the RSF claimed that it had taken control of Khartoum international airport, Merowe airport, al-Obeid airport, and the presidential palace.[9]

Armed Conflict and Human Right Violations

On April 15, 2023, the Spokesperson for Mr. Guterres, the Secretary-General, noted that the UN chief’s call for the leaders of the RSF and SAF to “immediately cease hostilities, restore calm and initiate a dialogue to resolve the current crisis,” and for the Member States in the region to support efforts to restore order and return to the path of transition to civilian rule.[10] Mr. Guterres also raised concerns over the “devastating” impact that any further escalation in the fighting would have on civilians, further aggravating the already precarious humanitarian situation in the country.[11]

The conflict has provoked one of the world’s biggest humanitarian catastrophes, with famine also being confirmed in the largest displacement camp in Darfur in August 2024.[12] Sudan reached the world’s highest level of internal displacement, over 10.8 million as of September 2024, an increase of almost 2 million since 2023.[13] The RSF and its allies committed widespread unlawful killings which included mass executions, sexual violence, targeted civilian property, and use of heavy explosive weapons on densely populated areas.[14] The SAF and its allies also bombed populated areas in addition to committing sexual violence, torture of detainees, and mutilating bodies.[15] Both the RSF and SAF willfully obstructed aid, with repeated attacks and incursions into hospitals and occupations of healthcare, the country’s health system has been decimated.[16]

The SAF military intelligence have imposed a multitude of arbitrary bureaucratic restrictions that have hampered the work of humanitarian organizations and their ability to reach those in need.[17] In September 2024, the Sudan NGO forum stated that between August and September 2024, “nearly 7 million people could not access humanitarian assistance due to access constraints, including arbitrary denials.”[18]  The SAF-aligned authorities imposed a de facto blockade on medical supplies in RSF-controlled areas of Khartoum.[19] The RSF’s ongoing presence and incursion into hospitals and widespread looting of aid, prevented civilians from accessing aid.[20] Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), suspended its activities in the Turkish Hospital in Khartoum following repeated violent incidents at the hospital as well as ongoing obstruction.[21]

The RSF subjected women and girls in areas under their control in Khartoum, Bahri, and Omdurman to widespread sexual violence, and into forced and child marriages.[22] Sexual violence by SAF has also been reported as they took over parts of Omdurman in early 2024.[23] The Strategic Initiative for Women in Horn of Africa (SIHA), a regional women rights group, reported that RSF employed sexual violence as an “instrument of war” in Al Gezira state in central Sudan following the RSF takeover of the state in December 2023.[24]

The International Community’s Response

In 2024, the United States (US) and the European Union (EU) imposed sanctions against entities fueling the conflict and individuals responsible for abuses.[25] The United Kingdom (UK) sanctioned six entities but no individuals.[26] The UN and African Union’s respective security councils passed resolutions calling for civilian protection plans; neither resulted in concrete steps to deploy a protection force.[27] The International Criminal Court’s (ICC) investigation into Darfur is ongoing, with focuses on alleged genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity committed in the area.[28]

The UN Independent International Fact-Finding Mission (FFM) for Sudan released its first report in September 2024 and had its mandate extended by the UN Human Rights Council in October.[29] The mandate reported that the US and Saudi Arabia co-facilitated talks between SAF and RSF in early May 2023 in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, resulting in the signing of the Jeddah Declaration of Commitment to Protect the Civilians of Sudan.[30] Under this agreement, the parties committed to protect civilians; respect international humanitarian law and international human rights law; allow humanitarian operations to resume, protect humanitarian personnel and assets, ensure that their respective forces abide by international humanitarian law and schedule expanded discussions to achieve a permanent cessation of hostilities.[31] These commitments remain largely unimplemented.[32]

In 2024 the US Department of State (USDOS) released the 2024 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Sudan. The USDOS’ report stated that US Secretary of State Antony Blinken determined that members of the SAF and RSF committed war crimes in Sudan.[33] Mr. Blinken also determined that members of the RSF and allied militias committed crimes against humanity and ethnic cleansing.[34] Civil society initiatives, such as the Sudanese youth-led initiative “emergency rooms”, are some of the ways in which local communities can begin to repair the fabric of basic human rights law across Sudan.[35]

Conclusion

In conclusion, the conflict between the SAF and the RSF has entrenched widespread human rights violations, devastated civilian life, and intensified one of the world’s gravest humanitarian crises, marked by famine, mass displacement, and the systematic obstruction of aid. Despite international sanctions, investigations, and formal commitments such as the Jeddah Declaration, these measures have largely failed to translate into effective civilian protection or accountability. As civilians continue to bear the brunt of ongoing hostilities and alleged war crimes and crimes against humanity, how long can the international community rely on existing international legal frameworks and mechanisms to protect civilians and enforce accountability when compliance and implementation remain so profoundly limited in Sudan?

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[1] UN News: Global perspective Human stories, In Focus: Sudan Conflict, at 2, https://news.un.org/en/focus/sudan-conflict

[2] Id.

[3] Id.

[4] Id., See also Integrated Food Security Phase Classification, Sudan: Acute Food Insecurity Situation for September 2025 and Projections for October 2025 – January 2026 and for February – May 2026, Mar. 11, 2025, https://www.ipcinfo.org/ipc-country-analysis/details-map/en/c/1159787/?iso3=SDN (Showcasing the current level of famine across Sudan).

[5] UN News Global perspective Human Stories, UN chief and officials condemn fighting between Sudanese forces, Apr. 15, 2023, at 2, https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/04/1135702

[6] Cameron Hudson, What Is Driving Violent Unrest in Sudan?, Ctr. For. Strateg. & Int’l. Stud., Apr. 18, 2023, at 2, https://www.csis.org/analysis/what-driving-violent-unrest-sudan, See also UN News, supra note 5 (Stating military rule has been effect since 2021).

[7] See Supra note 6.

[8] See Supra note 5.

[9] Id.

[10] Id., See also https://x.com/UN_Spokesperson/status/1647342640961028098?s=20 (Spokesperson post on X stating that discussions were made).

[11] Id. at 3.

[12] Tirana Hassan, Sudan: Events of 2024, World Report 2025, at 2, https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2025/country-chapters/sudan

[13] Id.

[14] Id. at 3.

[15] Id.

[16] Id.  

[17] Id. at 10.

[18] Id. at 10-11.

[19] Id. at 11.

[20] Id.

[21] Id.

[22] Id. at 12.

[23] Id. at 12-13.

[24] Id. at 13., See also Kampala, Report: Sexual Violence the ‘forgotten atrocities’ of Sudan war, Independent news from the heart of Sudan, July 23, 2024 https://www.dabangasudan.org/en/all-news/article/report-sexual-violence-the-forgotten-atrocities-of-sudan-war (SIHA reporting that sexual violence is an instrument of war used by the RSF).

[25] See Supra note 12, at 4.

[26] Id.

[27] Id., See also https://docs.un.org/en/s/res/2750(2024) (UN Security Council Resolution).

[28] See Supra note 12, at 4., See also https://www.icc-cpi.int/darfur (ICC’s current focus on Darfur, Sudan).

[29] See Supra note 12, at 4.

[30] United Nations General Assembly, Report of the independent international fact-finding mission for the Sudan*, Nov. 7, 2024, at 4, https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/4071359?ln=en&v=pdf

[31] Id.

[32] Id.

[33] US Department of State, 2024 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Sudan, at 2, https://www.state.gov/reports/2024-country-reports-on-human-rights-practices/sudan

[34] Id.

[35]UN News: Global perspective Human stories, ‘A war of atrocities’ – UN human rights investigators warn Sudanese civilians are paying the highest price, Sep. 5, 2025, at 4, https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/09/1165784, See also UN News: Global perspective Human stories, Youth-led ‘emergency rooms’ shine rays of hope in war-torn Sudan, Feb. 3, 2024, https://news.un.org/en/story/2024/02/1146187 (Describing the effect of the youth-led initiative on civilians).